1.
Grotta JC, Albers GW, Broderick JP, et al. Stroke: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Management. 6th ed. Elsevier Health Sciences; 2015. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/book/9780323295444
2.
Pantoni L, Gorelick PB, eds. Cerebral Small Vessel Disease. Vol Cambridge medicine. Cambridge University Press; 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139382694
3.
Pantoni L. Cerebral small vessel disease: from pathogenesis and clinical characteristics to therapeutic challenges. The Lancet Neurology. 2010;9(7):689-701. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(10)70104-6
4.
Gouw AA, Seewann A, van der Flier WM, et al. Heterogeneity of small vessel disease: a systematic review of MRI and histopathology correlations. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry. 2011;82(2):126-135. doi:10.1136/jnnp.2009.204685
5.
Homma S. Patent Foramen Ovale and Stroke. Circulation. 2005;112(7):1063-1072. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.104.524371
6.
Hart RG, Diener HC, Coutts SB, et al. Embolic strokes of undetermined source: the case for a new clinical construct. The Lancet Neurology. 2014;13(4):429-438. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(13)70310-7
7.
Atrial fibrillation: the management of atrial fibrillation | Guidance and guidelines | NICE. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg180
8.
Wolf PA, Abbott RD, Kannel WB. Atrial fibrillation as an independent risk factor for stroke: the Framingham Study. Stroke. 1991;22(8):983-988. doi:10.1161/01.STR.22.8.983
9.
Wakili R, Voigt N, Kääb S, Dobrev D, Nattel S. Recent advances in the molecular pathophysiology of atrial fibrillation. Journal of Clinical Investigation. 2011;121(8):2955-2968. doi:10.1172/JCI46315
10.
Sposato LA, Cipriano LE, Riccio PM, Hachinski V, Saposnik G. Very short paroxysms account for more than half of the cases of atrial fibrillation detected after stroke and TIA: a systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Stroke. 2015;10(6):801-807. doi:10.1111/ijs.12555
11.
Ferro JM. Cardioembolic stroke: an update. The Lancet Neurology. 2003;2(3):177-188. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(03)00324-7
12.
Anderson CS, Heeley E, Huang Y, et al. Rapid Blood-Pressure Lowering in Patients with Acute Intracerebral Hemorrhage. New England Journal of Medicine. 2013;368(25):2355-2365. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1214609
13.
Bohman LE, Levine JM. Fever and therapeutic normothermia in severe brain injury. Current Opinion in Critical Care. 2014;20(2):182-188. doi:10.1097/MCC.0000000000000070
14.
Delcourt C, Anderson C. Acute intracerebral haemorrhage: Grounds for optimism in management. Journal of Clinical Neuroscience. 2012;19(12):1622-1626. doi:10.1016/j.jocn.2012.05.018
15.
Grise, Erin M. Blood pressure control for acute ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke. Current Opinion in Critical Care. 18(2). http://ovidsp.ovid.com/ovidweb.cgi?T=JS&CSC=Y&NEWS=N&PAGE=fulltext&AN=00075198-201204000-00005&LSLINK=80&D=ovft
16.
Guidelines for Management of Ischaemic Stroke and Transient Ischaemic Attack 2008. Cerebrovascular Diseases. 2008;25(5):457-507. doi:10.1159/000131083
17.
Flower, Oliver. The acute management of intracerebral hemorrhage. Current Opinion in Critical Care. 17(2). http://ovidsp.ovid.com/ovidweb.cgi?T=JS&CSC=Y&NEWS=N&PAGE=fulltext&AN=00075198-201104000-00005&LSLINK=80&D=ovft
18.
Gioia, Laura C.a. Blood pressure management in acute intracerebral hemorrhage: current evidence and ongoing controversies. Current Opinion in Critical Care. 21(2). http://ovidsp.ovid.com/ovidweb.cgi?T=JS&CSC=Y&NEWS=N&PAGE=fulltext&AN=00075198-201504000-00003&LSLINK=80&D=ovft
19.
Hemphill JC, Greenberg SM, Anderson CS, et al. Guidelines for the Management of Spontaneous Intracerebral Hemorrhage. Stroke. 2015;46(7):2032-2060. doi:10.1161/STR.0000000000000069
20.
Jauch EC, Saver JL, Adams HP, et al. Guidelines for the Early Management of Patients With Acute Ischemic Stroke: A Guideline for Healthcare Professionals From the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2013;44(3):870-947. doi:10.1161/STR.0b013e318284056a
21.
Kalanuria, Atul A.a , b. Early prognostication in acute brain damage: where is the evidence? Current Opinion in Critical Care. 19(2). http://ovidsp.ovid.com/ovidweb.cgi?T=JS&CSC=Y&NEWS=N&PAGE=fulltext&AN=00075198-201304000-00008&LSLINK=80&D=ovft
22.
Kirkman MA, Citerio G, Smith M. The intensive care management of acute ischemic stroke: an overview. Intensive Care Medicine. 2014;40(5):640-653. doi:10.1007/s00134-014-3266-z
23.
Kirkman, Matthew A. MBBS*,†. Supratentorial Intracerebral Hemorrhage: A Review of the Underlying Pathophysiology and its Relevance for Multimodality Neuromonitoring in Neurointensive Care. Journal of Neurosurgical Anesthesiology. 25(3):228-239. http://ovidsp.ovid.com/ovidweb.cgi?T=JS&CSC=Y&NEWS=N&PAGE=fulltext&AN=00008506-201307000-00002&LSLINK=80&D=ovft
24.
Smith, Martin MBBS, FRCA. Monitoring Intracranial Pressure in Traumatic Brain Injury. Anesthesia & Analgesia. 106(1):240-248. http://ovidsp.ovid.com/ovidweb.cgi?T=JS&CSC=Y&NEWS=N&PAGE=fulltext&AN=00000539-200801000-00042&LSLINK=80&D=ovft
25.
Wartenberg, Katja E. Malignant middle cerebral artery infarction. Current Opinion in Critical Care. 18(2). http://ovidsp.ovid.com/ovidweb.cgi?T=JS&CSC=Y&NEWS=N&PAGE=fulltext&AN=00075198-201204000-00008&LSLINK=80&D=ovft
26.
Rose JC, Mayer SA. Optimizing Blood Pressure in Neurological Emergencies. Neurocritical Care. 2004;1(3):287-300. doi:10.1385/NCC:1:3:287
27.
Oeinck M, Neunhoeffer F, Buttler KJ, et al. Dynamic Cerebral Autoregulation in Acute Intracerebral Hemorrhage. Stroke. 2013;44(10):2722-2728. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.113.001913
28.
Staessen JA, Wang J, Bianchi G, Birkenhäger WH. Essential hypertension. The Lancet. 2003;361(9369):1629-1641. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)13302-8
29.
A. W. Cowley. Long-term control of arterial blood pressure. Physiological Reviews. 1992;72(1):231-300. http://physrev.physiology.org/content/72/1/231
30.
Abbott NJ, Patabendige AAK, Dolman DEM, Yusof SR, Begley DJ. Structure and function of the blood–brain barrier. Neurobiology of Disease. 2010;37(1):13-25. doi:10.1016/j.nbd.2009.07.030
31.
Bridges LR, Andoh J, Lawrence AJ, et al. Blood-Brain Barrier Dysfunction and Cerebral Small Vessel Disease (Arteriolosclerosis) in Brains of Older People. Journal of Neuropathology & Experimental Neurology. 2014;73(11):1026-1033. doi:10.1097/NEN.0000000000000124
32.
Liu JYW, Thom M, Catarino CB, et al. Neuropathology of the blood-brain barrier and pharmaco-resistance in human epilepsy. Brain. 2012;135(10):3115-3133. doi:10.1093/brain/aws147
33.
Taheri S, Gasparovic C, Huisa BN, et al. Blood-Brain Barrier Permeability Abnormalities in Vascular Cognitive Impairment. Stroke. 2011;42(8):2158-2163. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.110.611731
34.
Wardlaw JM, Sandercock PAG, Dennis MS, Starr J, Kalimo H. Is Breakdown of the Blood-Brain Barrier Responsible for Lacunar Stroke, Leukoaraiosis, and Dementia? Stroke. 2003;34(3):806-812. doi:10.1161/01.STR.0000058480.77236.B3
35.
Zhao Z, Sagare AP, Ma Q, et al. Central role for PICALM in amyloid-β blood-brain barrier transcytosis and clearance. Nature Neuroscience. 2015;18(7):978-987. doi:10.1038/nn.4025
36.
Zlokovic BV. The Blood-Brain Barrier in Health and Chronic Neurodegenerative Disorders. Neuron. 2008;57(2):178-201. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2008.01.003
37.
Zlokovic BV. Cerebrovascular Effects of Apolipoprotein E. JAMA Neurology. 2013;70(4). doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2013.2152
38.
Hougaard KD, Hjort N, Zeidler D, et al. Remote Ischemic Perconditioning as an Adjunct Therapy to Thrombolysis in Patients With Acute Ischemic Stroke: A Randomized Trial. Stroke. 2014;45(1):159-167. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.113.001346
39.
Grupke S, Hall J, Dobbs M, Bix GJ, Fraser JF. Understanding history, and not repeating it. Neuroprotection for acute ischemic stroke: From review to preview. Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery. 2015;129:1-9. doi:10.1016/j.clineuro.2014.11.013
40.
Lees KR. Does neuroprotection improve stroke outcome? The Lancet. 1998;351(9114):1447-1448. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)78865-6
41.
Wang Y, Reis C, Applegate R, Stier G, Martin R, Zhang JH. Ischemic conditioning-induced endogenous brain protection: Applications pre-, per- or post-stroke. Experimental Neurology. Published online April 2015. doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2015.04.009
42.
Habs M, Pfefferkorn T, Cyran CC, et al. Age determination of vessel wall hematoma in spontaneous cervical artery dissection: A multi-sequence 3T Cardiovascular Magnetic resonance study. Journal of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance. 2011;13(1). doi:10.1186/1532-429X-13-76
43.
Gupta A, Baradaran H, Schweitzer AD, et al. Carotid Plaque MRI and Stroke Risk: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Stroke. 2013;44(11):3071-3077. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.113.002551
44.
Yuan C, Kerwin WS, Yarnykh VL, et al. MRI of atherosclerosis in clinical trials. NMR in Biomedicine. 2006;19(6):636-654. doi:10.1002/nbm.1065
45.
Altaf N, MacSweeney ST, Gladman J, Auer DP. Carotid Intraplaque Hemorrhage Predicts Recurrent Symptoms in Patients With High-Grade Carotid Stenosis. Stroke. 2007;38(5):1633-1635. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.106.473066
46.
Altaf N, Goode SD, Beech A, et al. Plaque Hemorrhage Is a Marker of Thromboembolic Activity in Patients with Symptomatic Carotid Disease. Radiology. 2011;258(2):538-545. doi:10.1148/radiol.10100198
47.
Jones DK. Diffusion MRI: Theory, Methods, and Applications. Oxford University Press; 2011.
48.
Barker PB, Golay X, Zaharchuk G. Clinical Perfusion MRI Techniques and Applications. Cambridge University Press; 2013.
49.
Wilson D, Adams ME, Robertson F, Murphy M, Werring DJ. Investigating intracerebral haemorrhage. BMJ. 2015;350(may20 10):h2484-h2484. doi:10.1136/bmj.h2484
50.
Wilson D, Charidimou A, Werring DJ. Advances in understanding spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: insights from neuroimaging. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics. 2014;14(6):661-678. doi:10.1586/14737175.2014.918506
51.
Hemphill JC, Greenberg SM, Anderson CS, et al. Guidelines for the Management of Spontaneous Intracerebral Hemorrhage. Stroke. 2015;46(7):2032-2060. doi:10.1161/STR.0000000000000069
52.
Murphy TH, Corbett D. Plasticity during stroke recovery: from synapse to behaviour. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2009;10(12):861-872. doi:10.1038/nrn2735
53.
Zeiler SR, Krakauer JW. The interaction between training and plasticity in the poststroke brain. Current Opinion in Neurology. 2013;26(6):609-616. doi:10.1097/WCO.0000000000000025
54.
Krakauer JW, Carmichael ST, Corbett D, Wittenberg GF. Getting Neurorehabilitation Right: What Can Be Learned From Animal Models? Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair. 2012;26(8):923-931. doi:10.1177/1545968312440745
55.
Ward NS. Does neuroimaging help to deliver better recovery of movement after stroke? Current Opinion in Neurology. 2015;28(4):323-329. doi:10.1097/WCO.0000000000000223
56.
Ward NS. Using oscillations to understand recovery after stroke. Brain. 2015;138(10):2811-2813. doi:10.1093/brain/awv265
57.
Krakauer J, Marshall R. The proportional recovery rule for stroke revisited. Annals of Neurology. Published online October 2015:n/a-n/a. doi:10.1002/ana.24537
58.
Coupar F, Pollock A, Rowe P, Weir C, Langhorne P. Predictors of upper limb recovery after stroke: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Rehabilitation. 2012;26(4):291-313. doi:10.1177/0269215511420305
59.
Stinear CM, Barber PA, Petoe M, Anwar S, Byblow WD. The PREP algorithm predicts potential for upper limb recovery after stroke. Brain. 2012;135(8):2527-2535. doi:10.1093/brain/aws146
60.
Hope TMH, Seghier ML, Leff AP, Price CJ. Predicting outcome and recovery after stroke with lesions extracted from MRI images. NeuroImage: Clinical. 2013;2:424-433. doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2013.03.005
61.
Clarkson AN, Huang BS, MacIsaac SE, Mody I, Carmichael ST. Reducing excessive GABA-mediated tonic inhibition promotes functional recovery after stroke. Nature. 2010;468(7321):305-309. doi:10.1038/nature09511
62.
Hall SD, Stanford IM, Yamawaki N, et al. The role of GABAergic modulation in motor function related neuronal network activity. NeuroImage. 2011;56(3):1506-1510. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.02.025
63.
Stary HC, Chandler AB, Dinsmore RE, et al. A Definition of Advanced Types of Atherosclerotic Lesions and a Histological Classification of Atherosclerosis : A Report From the Committee on Vascular Lesions of the Council on Arteriosclerosis, American Heart Association. Circulation. 1995;92(5):1355-1374. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.92.5.1355
64.
Virmani R, Kolodgie FD, Burke AP, Farb A, Schwartz SM. Lessons From Sudden Coronary Death : A Comprehensive Morphological Classification Scheme for Atherosclerotic Lesions. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology. 2000;20(5):1262-1275. doi:10.1161/01.ATV.20.5.1262
65.
Malek AM. Hemodynamic Shear Stress and Its Role in Atherosclerosis. JAMA. 1999;282(21). doi:10.1001/jama.282.21.2035
66.
Chatzizisis YS, Coskun AU, Jonas M, Edelman ER, Feldman CL, Stone PH. Role of Endothelial Shear Stress in the Natural History of Coronary Atherosclerosis and Vascular Remodeling. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2007;49(25):2379-2393. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2007.02.059
67.
Libby P. Inflammation in atherosclerosis. Nature. 2002;420(6917):868-874. doi:10.1038/nature01323
68.
Astrup J, Symon L, Branston NM, Lassen NA. Cortical evoked potential and extracellular K+ and H+ at critical levels of brain ischemia. Stroke. 1977;8(1):51-57. doi:10.1161/01.STR.8.1.51
69.
Sharp FR, Lu A, Tang Y, Millhorn DE. Multiple Molecular Penumbras After Focal Cerebral Ischemia. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism. Published online July 2000:1011-1032. doi:10.1097/00004647-200007000-00001
70.
Ginsberg MD. Adventures in the Pathophysiology of Brain Ischemia: Penumbra, Gene Expression, Neuroprotection: The 2002 Thomas Willis Lecture. Stroke. 2003;34(1):214-223. doi:10.1161/01.STR.0000048846.09677.62
71.
Furlan M, Marchal G, Derlon JM, Baron JC, Viader F. Spontaneous neurological recovery after stroke and the fate of the ischemic penumbra. Annals of Neurology. 1996;40(2):216-226. doi:10.1002/ana.410400213
72.
Ramos-Cabrer P, Campos F, Sobrino T, Castillo J. Targeting the Ischemic Penumbra. Stroke. 2011;42(1, Supplement 1):S7-S11. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.110.596684
73.
Lo EH. A new penumbra: transitioning from injury into repair after stroke. Nature Medicine. 2008;14(5):497-500. doi:10.1038/nm1735
74.
Sharp FR, Lu A, Tang Y, Millhorn DE. Multiple Molecular Penumbras After Focal Cerebral Ischemia. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism. Published online July 2000:1011-1032. doi:10.1097/00004647-200007000-00001
75.
Lok J, Gupta P, Guo S, et al. Cell–cell Signaling in the Neurovascular Unit. Neurochemical Research. 2007;32(12):2032-2045. doi:10.1007/s11064-007-9342-9
76.
del Zoppo GJ, Hallenbeck JM. Advances in the Vascular Pathophysiology of Ischemic Stroke. Thrombosis Research. 2000;98(3):73-81. doi:10.1016/S0049-3848(00)00218-8
77.
T P Obrenovitch. The ischaemic penumbra: Twenty years on. Cerebrovascular and brain metabolism reviews. 1995;7(4).
78.
Harris JJ, Jolivet R, Attwell D. Synaptic Energy Use and Supply. Neuron. 2012;75(5):762-777. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2012.08.019
79.
Attwell D, Buchan AM, Charpak S, Lauritzen M, MacVicar BA, Newman EA. Glial and neuronal control of brain blood flow. Nature. 2010;468(7321):232-243. doi:10.1038/nature09613
80.
Lo EH, Dalkara T, Moskowitz MA. Neurological diseases: Mechanisms, challenges and opportunities in stroke. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2003;4(5):399-414. doi:10.1038/nrn1106
81.
Culmsee C, Krieglstein J. Ischaemic brain damage after stroke: new insights into efficient therapeutic strategies. International Symposium on Neurodegeneration and Neuroprotection. EMBO reports. 2007;8(2):129-133. doi:10.1038/sj.embor.7400892
82.
Hall CN, Reynell C, Gesslein B, et al. Capillary pericytes regulate cerebral blood flow in health and disease. Nature. 2014;508(7494):55-60. doi:10.1038/nature13165
83.
Fisch A. Neuroanatomy: Draw It to Know It. 2nd ed. Oxford University Press; 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199845712.001.0001
84.
T A Yousry. Localization of the motor hand area to a knob on the precentral gyrus. A new landmark. Brain. 1997;120(1):141-157. http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/120/1/141
